A
ablautThe Proto-Indo-European system of root vowel alternations. There existed the following variants or "grades" of ablaut: full (or "e") grade, full grade with ablaut (or "o"), lengthened grade, lengthened grade with ablaut, and zero grade. The results of this alternation can be seen in the following ModE related words (listed in the same order as the above grades): sit, sat, seat, soot, nest; and also in the English strong verb system.
acronymA word formed by combining the initial letters of a series of related words. e.g., radar, Nato, snafu, etc.
affricateA stop which is a combination of stop plus a homorganic fricative. e.g., Eng. /j/, /ts/, etc.
allophoneThe different sounds that can represent one phoneme in the speech of a given speaker or language; that is, they are perceived under certain circumstances to be the same phoneme. Allophonic systems can vary from speaker to speaker or more especially from language to language. e.g., /s/ can be represented by the allophones /s/ and /z/ (sound or sounds).
alveolarA consonant articulated on or near the alveolar ridge. e.g., Eng. [t], [d], [s], [z], [n], [l], etc.
alveolar ridgeThe hard ridge located behind the upper front teeth.
ameliorationThe improvement or bettering of the meaning of a word through semantic change. The opposite of pejoration.
aphaeresisThe loss of an initial vowel. e.g., opossum > possum. See also apocope and syncope.
apocopeThe loss of a final vowel. e.g., ME helpe > ModE help, NHG dem Tage > dem Tag. See also syncope and aphaeresis.
articulationThe point of production of the various segments in the oral cavity.
assimilationThe process by which a sound becomes similar to another sound by its influence. The process is demonstrated by the word assimilation itself. It is comprised of the Latin prefix ad-, the root simil-, and the verb suffix -are. The d of the prefix has become assimilated to the s of the initial consonant of the root. Assimilation can be progressive or regressive, distant or contact. The opposite of assimilation is dissimilation
B
back-formationThe creation by analogy of a new word from an existing word on the false assumption that the existing word is a derivative of the new word. e.g., 'to administrate' from 'administration,' or 'to burgle' from 'burglar.'
back vowelVowels, for which the location of the back of the tongue at articulation is relatively back in the velar area. e.g., [o:], [u:].
bound morphemeA morpheme which never occurs alone, but is attached to other morphemes. e.g., Eng. kindness, unlikely, Ger. Mädchen, inflectional endings, etc.
C
calqueA loan translation. A process of using native elements to express a foreign term. The native elements match the meanings and structure of the foreign terms. e.g., television > Ger. Fernseher, Ger. Weltanschauung > Eng. world view.
consonantAny segment produced by stopping and releasing the air stream (stops), or stopping it at one point while it escapes at another (liquids), or a very narrow passage causing friction (fricatives).
consonant clusterA grouping of two or more consonants together. e.g., concrete, consonants
D
diphthongSyllabics which show a marked glide from one vowel to another, usually a steady vowel plus a glide. e.g., /ou/ in house, /oi/ in toy.
dissimilationThe process by which a sound becomes dissimilar to another sound. e.g., Lat. turtur > Mod E. turtle, Lat. marmor > ModE marble.
E
epenthesisThe addition of a vowel to break up perceived difficult consonant clusters. e.g., Lat. faclis > facilis; ModE athlete > variant 'athelete'.
F
fricativeA consonant produced when the air released by an articulator passes through a narrow passage with audible friction. e.g., [f], [s], [þ], [ð], etc.
front vowelVowels, for which the point of articulation of the back of the tongue is relatively front, or forward, in the velar area. e.g., [i:], [æ].
G
glideAlso called a semivowel. Segments like English /w/ and /y/.
graphemeThe basic unit of writing in any language. English has 26 graphemes or letters. German has 30. Graphemes are indicated by being placed in angle brackets
H
haplologyThe loss of one of two repeated identical sequences (whether syllables or words) in a structure. e.g., the common pronunciation of 'probably' as 'probly'.
high vowel
homorganicNon-identical segments having the same point of articulation. e.g., [p], [b] & [m]; [t], [d] & [s]; [k], [g]; etc.
I
inflectionThe bound morpheme used to indicate the grammatical function of a word. e.g., -'s to indicate the possessive as in boy's, or -s or -es to indicate the plural.
isoglossA line drawn on a linguistic map locating the outer limits of some characteristic feature. e.g., the Benrath line for German [k]/[kh].
L
ligatureA grapheme formed by a combination of two letters. e.g., OE ae > æ; Ger. sz > ß
liquidName given to various [r] and [l] sounds. The [r] sounds are sometimes designated as laterals.
low vowelA vowel for which the location of the back of the tongue at articulation is "low" in the mouth, or farther away from the velum than for other vowels. e.g., [æ] or [a].
M
metathesisThe transposition of phonemes. e.g., OE hros, bridd, thridde > ModE horse, bird, third.
mid vowelVowels that are articulated with the back of the tongue in a mid, or intermediate position. e.g., [schwa], [e], [e:], [o:].
minimal pairsA grouping of two words that differentiate in only one phoneme. e.g., pail - mail, rush - mush, run - fun, wave - wage, ride - rode, etc.
monophthongizationThe change of a diphthong to a monophthong, or single vowel sound. e.g., MHG fuoz > NHG Fuß.
morphemeThe smallest unit of meaning. Any word or part of a word that conveys meaning and cannot be further divided into smaller meaningful elements.
morphologyThe study of forms of language, especially the different forms used in declensions, conjugations, and wordbuilding.
N
nasalA class of consonants, in which air is permitted to flow through the nasal passage. e.g., [m], [n].
O
onomatopoeiaWords that through their segments imitate sounds one can hear in the environment. e.g., whoosh, meow, clink, bong, boom, creak, cockadoodledoo, cheep, zoom, buzz, etc.
P
pejorationThe worsening of the meaning of a word through semantic change. The opposite of amelioration. e.g., OE cnafa 'child, youth' > ModE knave 'rascal, rogue'.
phonemeThe simplest significant unit of sound. A phoneme may also have various allophones.
phoneticsA branch of linguistics dealing with the analysis, description, and classification of speech sounds, or segments.
phonetic transcriptionA system of writing used to indicate the exact sounds of the various segments. In this system the segments are placed in square brackets. e.g., [a], [b], [s], etc.
phonologyThe branch of linguistics concerned with the structural relationships between segments. The study of phonetics and phonemics together in the evolution of speech sounds.
preWhen used with a language name, it designates an earlier form of a language. e.g., pre-Modern English, pre-Old English.
progressive assimilationIn this form of assimilation the conditioning factor precedes the affected sound.
protoWhen used with a language name, it designates a reconstructed language rather than an attested one. e.g., Proto-Indo-European, Proto-Germanic, etc.
R
regressive assimilationIn this form of assimilation the conditioning factor follows the affected sound. In other words, the conditioning factor is anticipated. Germanic i-umlaut is a good example of distant regressive assimilation, where rounded back vowels were fronted in anticipation of the [i] in the following syllable.
roundingA secondary articulation of certain vowels, wherein the vowels are produced with a certain amount of lip rounding. e.g., [o], [u], [y], etc.
S
segmentA speech sound.
sporadic sound changeAn irregular sound change. e.g., dissimilation and metathesis.
stopSegments produced by a complete blockage of the air flow at some point in its passage. e.g., [p], [t], [k], [b], [d], [g]. Stops are labeled according to the point of articulation, such as labials, alveolars, dentals, palatals, velars, etc.
syncopeThe loss of a medial vowel. e.g., OE munecas > ME munkes > ModE monks. See also apocope and aphaeresis.
T
tabooThis occurs when the belief exists that saying a certain word is unacceptable, either 1) because it might evoke that thing, 2) it might be considered too sacred, or 3) perhaps it is too profane. A euphemism develops so that the thing can be talked about without actually saying it. e.g., 1) Eng. bear <'the brown one' replacing the original, now lost, word probably a cognate of Grk. arktos; 2) Hebr. adonai; 3) gosh, heck or darn for certain well-known profane words.
U
umlautThe assimilation - through fronting, backing, raising, or lowering - of a class of vowels to a set of segments in an immediately neighboring syllable. e.g., PGmc. *fulljan- > OE fyllan 'fill', PGmc. *gulda > OE gold, OHG furi > NHG für 'for'.
unvoicedA segment produced without any accompanying vibration of the vocal cords. e.g., [p] v. [b], or [t] v. [d], etc.
V
voicedA segment produced with accompanying vibration of the vocal cords. e.g., [b] v. [p], or [d] v. [t], etc.
vowelA voiced segment characterized by generalized friction of the air passing in a continuous stream through the pharynx and opened mouth, with relatively no narrowing or other obstruction of the speech organs.
(Rishi Kumar Nagar, Jalandhar)
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